Research Guides: Public Administration Resources: What is "scholarly literature"?

FAQ: Are all "peer-reviewed" articles research articles?

Q: Are all "peer-reviewed articles" research articles?

A: No. A lot of peer-reviewed articles are research articles, but not all of them are.

Articles in peer-reviewed / refereed journals have been through a process in which experts in the field have read the article and looked for weaknesses that might compromise reliability and validity. They recommended revisions before the article is published when necessary.

There are some articles in peer-reviewed journals that are not research-based. These include articles that are based on practice only, opinion pieces, book reviews, and more.

What is "Scholarly Literature"?

"Scholarly literature" encompasses resources that are of a scholarly nature. Scholarly literature is written by experts in a field for their peers (other experts in the same field) or people in academia. The scholarly work contributes to the ongoing scholarly conversation on a particular topic. Scholarly literature includes academic journal articles, conference papers, dissertations, and more. A scholarly article tends to refer to an academic journal article or a conference paper.

There are different types of scholarly literature.

Some lingo you may hear...

An empirical research article is an original study with the purpose of expanding knowledge on a particular topic through direct or indirect observation and research. Data is collected and analyzed to support the question the researchers are asking. The main sections of empirical research articles include the introduction, method, results, and discussion. Sub-sections commonly included are the abstract, conclusion, references, tables and figures.

A literature review article has a specific focus and theme around which the review is written. The author compares, contrasts, relates, and describes trends and theories in the literature. The author synthesizes information to reflect original thought. It is different from an annotated bibliography because more synthesis and analysis of ideas is required.

An annotated bibliography simply summarizes articles. However, there are evaluative annotations as well which also include critique of the article.

A systematic review is an all-encompassing literature review. The author(s) seeks out every piece of literature they can find on a topic, regardless of bias, to enable informed and comprehensive decisions for policies or practice.

A meta-analysis of previous research seeks to analyze and blend the data from previous studies to get a better idea of what the whole body of data says about a particular topic.

Derived from Cornell University Library: Scholarly Literature Types

What is empirical research, and how do I find it?

What is empirical research?

Empirical research is based on observed and measured phenomena and derives knowledge from real experience instead of from theory or belief. Basically, empirical research is research that has to do with the real world. For teachers, most empirical research takes place in the classroom, school, or co-curricular setting.

The researcher collects data, referred to as empirical evidence, and then undertakes a qualitative and/or quantitative analysis to answer empirical research questions.

How do you know if a study is empirical?

Clues in the abstract: Does the abstract depict a study or investigation that the author/s conducted on a population group in a particular setting? If yes, that's a great sign!
Clues in the methodology section: Skim through the subheadings of the journal article, conference paper, etc. Look for a description of the 'methodology'. Skim read it.
Ask yourself: Could I recreate this study on my own or with colleagues, and test these results?

Confirm you found empirical research by identifying key characteristics:

Particular research questions to be answered
Definition of the population, behavior, or phenomena studied
Description of the process used to study this population or phenomena, including selection criteria, controls, and testing instruments (such as surveys)

Tip! Some scholarly journals use a specific layout, called the "IMRaD" format, to convey empirical research findings. Such articles typically have four (4) components:

Introduction, including a literature review: Summary of the study followed by a literature review -- what is currently known about the topic -- usually includes a theoretical framework and/or discussion of previous studies
Methodology: AKA "research design" or "research methods" -- how to recreate the study -- typically describes the population, research process, and analytical tools
Results: AKA "findings" -- discoveries made through the study -- usually appear as statistical data or as substantial quotations from research participants
Discussion: AKA "conclusion" or "implications" -- why the study is relevant -- usually describes how the research results influence professional practices or future studies.

Examples of empirical research in the field of education

Forslund F. K. & Chiriac, E. H. (2014). Group work management in the classroom. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 58(2), 222–234. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2012.725098
Abstract: This study aims to provide a better understanding of teachers' managing roles when using group work in the classroom. Building on Granström's 2 concepts of leadership and teachership, a more specific aim is to investigate teachers' managing roles when using group work and how teachers' presumptions affect the way in which they manage the pedagogical mode. The results show that teachers' managing roles influence teachers' willingness to use group work. Teachers may be unwilling to use group work based on their presumption that it teaches students only collaboration abilities and not subject knowledge. This may be a supplemental yet significant explanation as to why group work continues to decrease in classrooms.
Cameron, C. E., & Morrison, F. J. (2011). Teacher activity orienting predicts preschoolers’ academic and self-regulatory skills. Early Education & Development, 22(4), 620–648. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409280903544405
Abstract: Research Findings: This observational study of preschoolers (N = 140) in their classrooms (N = 41) examined variation in teacher orienting (defined as explanations and demonstrations about the procedures and rationale behind activities, including center projects, to the whole group or to individual children) and associations between orienting and children's academic and self-regulation skills. Orienting to individual children rarely occurred, but significant variation between classrooms in whole-group orienting was present. Children who experienced higher amounts of whole-group orienting had higher scores on general knowledge, mathematics, emergent literacy, and self-regulation in the spring when we controlled for child- and classroom-level background variables, including children's fall pretest scores, teacher education, and experience. For expressive vocabulary, greater exposure to orienting predicted higher spring vocabulary for younger but not older preschoolers. Practice or Policy: The results indicate the importance of reducing classroom disparities in children's preschool experience and suggest that more attention should be paid to teachers' efforts to explain upcoming activities in whole-group settings. Finally, the interaction between orienting and child age for vocabulary suggests the need to consider both child characteristics and aspects of the context to identify the optimal preschool experiences for individual children. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
Conklin, C., Kamps, D., & Wills, H. (2017). The effects of class-wide function-related intervention teams (CW-FIT) on students’ prosocial classroom behaviors. Journal of Behavioral Education, 26(1), 75–100. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-016
Abstract: Students with challenging, disruptive behavior have difficulty learning in school, and their behavior adversely impacts the learning of other students and the classroom teacher. Class-Wide Function-related Intervention Teams (CW-FIT) is an evidence-based approach that teachers can use to prevent and reduce problem behavior and increase prosocial classroom behaviors. Previous studies have demonstrated that CW-FIT produced improvements in student appropriate classroom behaviors which led to increased available instruction time. The purpose of this investigation was to systematically replicate CW-FIT adding to the empirical research base supporting it. A novel aspect compared to prior studies was measurement of the student behaviors related to skills taught during CW-FIT (compliance, hand-raising, out-of-seat, and talking out), showing a direct relationship to students' improvements. Students in four classes and their teachers participated in this study. An ABAB reversal design was used to demonstrate intervention effectiveness and experimental control. Implications for research and practice are discussed.
Hoff, K. E. , & Ervin, R. A. (2013). Extending self-management strategies: The use of a classwide approach. Psychology in the Schools, 50(2), 151–164. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21666
Abstract: Notwithstanding the wealth of research that documents the effectiveness of self-management programs in the classroom, few investigations have explored classwide use of self-management procedures as a universal intervention. To extend existing research in this area, we examined the effectiveness of a classwide self-management intervention for decreasing disruptive behaviors among three at-risk second-grade students. We used a multiple baseline across subjects design and evaluated the effects of the self-management program at both the individual and classwide levels during academic instruction time. Results of the study showed a decrease in disruptive behaviors of the target students and a general decrease in classroom disruptive behavior. In addition, teachers and students provided positive ratings of intervention acceptability and feasibility. Limitations, implications, and future directions for research are discussed.
Larson, K. E., Pas, E. T., Bradshaw, C. P., Rosenberg, M. S., Day-Vines, N. L., & Gregory, A. (2018). Examining how proactive management and culturally responsive teaching relate to student behavior: Implications for measurement and practice.
Abstract: The discipline gap between White students and African American students has increased demand for teacher training in culturally responsive and behavior management practices. Extant research, however, is inconclusive about how culturally responsive teaching practices relate to student behavior or how to assess using such practices in the classroom. Identifying proactive behavior management and culturally responsive teaching practices that are associated with positive student behavior may inform teacher training and bolster efforts to reduce disparities in behavioral and academic performance. The current study examined the association between student behaviors and the observed use of and teacher self-reported efficacy in using culturally responsive teaching and proactive behavior management practices. Data were collected from 274 teachers in 18 schools. Structural equation modeling indicated a statistically significant association between observations of culturally responsive teaching and proactive behavior management practices, with observed positive student behaviors in classrooms. Implications for measurement and practice are discussed.

Where is empirical research published?

You will find empirical research in scholarly, peer-reviewed journal articles, conference papers, and books.

How can I search for empirical research articles?

Unfortunately, GALILEO and most library databases do not offer a direct pathway to locate empirical research.

As a default, select Scholarly/Peer-Reviewed Journals. Not everything published in a scholarly/peer-reviewed journal is empirical research. But empirical research articles are almost always published in scholarly/peer-reviewed journals.
Search as you would typically for journal articles and identify empirical research by skimming through the abstracts.

Help! I am finding too many results that aren't empirical research. What can I do?

The following tips for GALILEO and a couple of relevant databases for education could help:

Database aggregator or database	Search Tips
GALILEO Discover	GALILEO has no direct method to locate empirical research. Only using 'empirical' as a keyword will find some studies but may miss many others. Go to "Advanced Search" Type your keywords/key phrases into the search boxes. Scroll down the page, select scholarly/peer-reviewed journals in the left-hand panel, and the following limits: By type - academic journals By type - conference materials By type - reports Select Search. Skim through the abstracts and identify which ones are empirical research. If you are finding too many non-empirical research articles, add a search field by selecting the + button. In this last row, include keywords or phrases to help you narrow down to empirical research. Combine them with Boolean Operator OR. For example: "empirical study" OR "empirical research" OR "empirical evidence" OR "research methods" OR "research design" OR methodology.
ERIC (via EBSCOhost)	ERIC (via EBSCOhost) has no direct method to locate empirical research. Using 'empirical' as a keyword will find some studies but miss others. Tips: Search for "Research Reports" Go to "Advanced Search" Type your keywords and/or key phrases into the search boxes Scroll down the page to "Document Type," and choose "143 Reports: Research." Choose scholarly/peer-reviewed journals limiter and other limits like publication date. Select Search If not finding enough relevant or recent results: Select Scholarly/Peer-Reviewed Journals Include empirical as a keyword but combine it with some research terminology recommended by ERIC thesaurus with the Boolean Operator OR. Some of these include: "Action Research" "Case Studies" Ethnography "Evaluation Methods" "Evaluation Research" Experiments "Focus Groups" "Field Studies" Interviews Mail Surveys "Mixed Methods Research" "Naturalistic Observation" "Online Surveys" "Participant Observation" "Participatory Research" "Qualitative Research" Questionnaires Research "Statistical Analysis" "Statistical Studies" "Telephone Surveys"
PsycINFO (via EBSCOhost)	To find empirical articles in PsycINFO (via EBSCOhost): Go to "Advanced Search" Type your keywords and/or key phrases into the search boxes Scroll down the page to "Methodology," and choose "Empirical Study." Choose other limits, such as publication date, if needed. Select Search

Anatomy of a Research Article

Anatomy of an Article Presented by NCSU Libraries

Public Administration Resources: What is "scholarly literature"?