Research Guides: ESOL Education: What is "scholarly literature"?

FAQ: Are all "peer-reviewed" articles research articles?

Q: Are all "peer-reviewed articles" research articles?

A: No. A lot of peer-reviewed articles are research articles, but not all of them are.

Articles in peer-reviewed / refereed journals have been through a process in which experts in the field have read the article and looked for weaknesses that might compromise reliability and validity. They recommended revisions before the article is published when necessary.

There are some articles in peer-reviewed journals that are not research-based. These include articles that are based on practice only, opinion pieces, book reviews, and more.

What is "Scholarly Literature"?

"Scholarly literature" encompasses resources that are of a scholarly nature. Scholarly literature is written by experts in a field for their peers (other experts in the same field) or people in academia. The scholarly work adds to the ongoing scholarly conversation of a particular topic. Scholarly literature includes academic journal articles, conference papers, dissertations, and more. A scholarly article tends to refer to an academic journal article or a conference paper.

There are different types of scholarly literature.

Some lingo you may hear...

An empirical research article is an original study with the purpose of expanding knowledge on a particular topic through direct or indirect observation and research. Data is collected and analyzed to support the question the researchers are asking. Common sections of empirical study articles are the abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion, references, and tables and figures.

A literature review article has a specific focus and theme around which the review is written. The author compares, contrasts, relates, and describes trends and theories in the literature. The author synthesizes information to reflect original thought. It is different from an annotated bibliography because more synthesis and analysis of ideas is required.

An annotated bibliography simply summarizes articles. However, there are evaluative annotations as well which also include critique of the article.

A systematic review is an all-encompassing literature review. The author(s) seeks out every piece of literature they can find on a topic, regardless of bias, to enable informed and comprehensive decisions for policies or practice.

A meta-analysis of previous research seeks to analyze and blend the data from previous studies to get a better idea of what the whole body of data says about a particular topic.

Derived from Cornell University Library: Scholarly Literature Types

What is empirical research, and how do I find it?

What is empirical research?

Empirical research is "the systematic approach for answering certain types of questions" (Calfee & Chambliss, 2003, p. 152, as cited in Smith, 2021, para. 1). Empirical researchers have a practical need for investigating a question (Smith, 2021, para. 1). For example, they might want to investigate if a form of psychological treatment is effective for treating a particular disorder.

Empirical research involves researchers undertaking the following process of activities:

Identify and conceptualize the problem they wish to investigate
Compose their research question - this might be broken into sub-questions.
Survey the project to see how effective their results could be
Create their research plans
Select the subjects to be used to answer the research question
Gather and analyze data
Interpret and present their results

(Calfee & Chambliss, 2003; Bausell, 1986, as cited in Smith, 2021).

How do you know if a study is empirical?

Clues in the abstract: Does the abstract depict a study or investigation that the author/s conducted on a population group in a particular setting? If yes, that's a great sign!

Clues in the structure and organization of the article: Empirical research articles are typically organized in the following four sections:
- Introduction, including a literature review
- Methodology
- Results
- Discussion

You may find empirical research articles to have additional sub-sections, like a conclusion. Find more detail about these components in the Key Characteristics tab.

Clues in the methodology section: Skim through the subheadings of the journal article, conference paper, etc. Look for a description of the 'methodology.' Skim read it. Ask yourself: Could I recreate this study on my own or with others and test these results?

Derived from "Empirical Research in the Social Sciences and Education" Guide by PennState Libraries

Confirm you found empirical research by identifying key characteristics:

Particular research questions to be answered
Definition of the population, behavior, or phenomena studied
Description of the process used to study this population or phenomena, including selection criteria, controls, and testing instruments (such as surveys)

Tip! Some scholarly journals use a specific layout, called the "IMRaD" format, to convey empirical research findings. Such articles typically have four (4) components:

Introduction, including a literature review: Summary of the study followed by a literature review -- what is currently known about the topic -- usually includes a theoretical framework and/or discussion of previous studies
Methodology: AKA "research design" or "research methods" -- how to recreate the study -- typically describes the population, research process, and analytical tools
Results: AKA "findings" -- discoveries made through the study -- usually appear as statistical data or as substantial quotations from research participants
Discussion: AKA "conclusion" or "implications" -- why the study is relevant -- usually describes how the research results influence professional practices or future studies.

Derived from "Empirical Research in the Social Sciences and Education" Guide by PennState Libraries

Examples of empirical research in the field of psychological sciences

Tiggemann, M., Anderberg, I., & Brown, Z. (2020). #Loveyourbody: The effect of body positive Instagram captions on women’s body image. Body Image, 33, 129–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2020.02.015
Abstract:
One increasing trend on social media is the posting of body positive content that aims to challenge narrow beauty ideals and instead promote acceptance and appreciation of all bodies. The aim of the present study was to experimentally investigate the effect of body positive captions attached to Instagram images on young women’s body image. Participants were 384 women aged 18–30 years randomly assigned to view Instagram images of thin or average-sized women containing either body positive captions or no captions. In contrast to prediction, the body positive captions had no effect on body dissatisfaction or body appreciation. There was a significant effect of image type, whereby the average images resulted in less body dissatisfaction and greater body appreciation than the thin images. A significant three-way interaction indicated that for women high on thin-ideal internalisation, body positive captions on average images led to greater body appreciation, but lower body appreciation when attached to thin images. The results suggest that the visual imagery of an Instagram post is a more potent contributor to body image than any accompanying text. Presenting a more diverse array of women’s bodies on social media is likely a more effective way to foster body satisfaction and appreciation.
Prichard, I., Kavanagh, E., Mulgrew, K. E., Lim, M. S. C., & Tiggemann, M. (2020). The effect of Instagram #fitspiration images on young women’s mood, body image, and exercise behaviour. Body Image, 33, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2020.02
Abstract:
The present study experimentally examined the effects of viewing Instagram images of fitspiration on body dissatisfaction, mood, and exercise behaviour among young women. Further, the study investigated if exercise engagement following exposure to fitspiration images could mitigate any negative effects from image exposure. Participants were 108 women, aged 17–25 years, who were randomly assigned to a 2 (image type: fitspiration, travel inspiration) × 2 (activity type: exercise, quiet rest) between groups design. State body dissatisfaction and mood were assessed at baseline, following image exposure, and following participation in 10 min of walking or quiet rest. Results demonstrated that exposure to fitspiration images led to significantly higher negative mood and body dissatisfaction relative to exposure to travel images. There was no difference in actual exercise behaviour according to image type. However, participants who exercised following exposure to fitspiration images were significantly more likely to report higher subjective exertion ratings. Overall, negative mood and body dissatisfaction decreased after both exercise and quiet rest, with no additional benefit of exercise for the fitspiration condition. These findings provide further evidence highlighting fitspiration as a potentially harmful online trend.
Ozimek, P., & Bierhoff, H.-W. (2020). All my online-friends are better than me – three studies about ability-based comparative social media use, self-esteem, and depressive tendencies. Behaviour & Information Technology, 39(10), 1110–1123. h
Abstract:
We conducted three studies to assess short-term and long-term effects of social comparative SNS use on self-esteem and depressive tendencies. In Study 1 (N = 75) we found in an exposure experiment including two experimental groups and one control group that social comparative internet use decreased participants’ performance-oriented state self-esteem as a short-term effect. In Study 2 and 3 (Ns = 809, 145) results of the serial multiple mediator model indicated that passive Facebook use is associated with higher depressive tendencies mediated by a higher ability-related social comparison orientation and lower self-esteem as long-term effect. To obtain more generalisable findings, we transferred the serial multiple mediator model successfully from private to professional SNS use (Study 3).
Arbona, C., Fan, W., & Olvera, N. (2018). College stress, minority status stress, depression, grades, and persistence intentions among Hispanic female students: A mediation model. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 40(4), 414–430. http
Abstract:
The present study examined the mediating role of depression symptoms in the relation of college stress and minority status stress to cumulative grade point average (GPA) and persistence intentions among Hispanic women (n = 426) enrolled in a 4-year major research public institution. Results of path analyses indicated a strong model-data fit for the proposed model. When controlling for each other, both typical college stress and minority status stress positively predicted depression and, in turn, depression negatively predicted college persistence intentions. Tests of indirect effects revealed that depression mediated the relation of college stress and minority status stress to persistence. No mediation effects were present in the relation of the stress variables to cumulative GPA. Findings suggest that depression symptoms is one of the pathways through which college stress and minority status stress may result in lower levels of persistence intentions and, possibly, dropout behavior among Hispanic college women in 4-year institutions.
Foulk, M. A., Ingersoll-Dayton, B., Kavanagh, J., Robinson, E., & Kales, H. C. (2014). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy with older adults: An exploratory study. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 57(5), 498–520. https://doi.org/10.108
Abstract:
An 8-week mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) group for older adults with depression and/or anxiety is described. This article is based on an exploratory study of this therapeutic approach and changes in participants’ symptoms associated with participation. Pre-post data from 5 MBCT groups showed significant improvements in reported anxiety, ruminative thoughts, and sleep problems and a reduction in depressive symptoms. Case examples are presented to illustrate these symptom changes. Findings showed that this nonpharmacological intervention is acceptable to older adults and is associated with positive changes. Suggestions are provided for both practitioners and researchers interested in using MBCT with older adults.

Where is empirical research published?

You will find empirical research in scholarly, peer-reviewed journal articles, conference papers, and books.

How can I search for empirical research articles?

In PsycArticles and PsycINFO databases, you can restrict your search to empirical research articles. See the steps in the table below.

However, GALILEO and most library databases do not offer a direct pathway to locate empirical research. In these cases:

As a default, select Scholarly/Peer-Reviewed Journals. Not everything published in a scholarly/peer-reviewed journal is empirical research. But empirical research articles are almost always published in scholarly/peer-reviewed journals.
Search as you would typically for journal articles and identify empirical research by skimming through the abstracts.

Finding empirical research articles

Below are instructions for restricting to empirical research articles in PsychINFO and tips for finding empirical research in GALILEO:

Database aggregator or database	Search Instructions and Tips
PsycArticles (via EBSCOhost)	To find peer-reviewed, empirical articles in PsycArticles (via EBSCOhost): Go to "Advanced Search" In the Search Options section, scroll down to Scholarly (Peer Reviewed) Journals and select the box Scroll down further down the page to the 'Methodology' box and choose "EMPIRICAL STUDY" Choose other limits, such as the publication date range, if needed. Select Search
PsycINFO (via EBSCOhost)	To find peer-reviewed empirical articles in PsycINFO (via EBSCOhost): Go to "Advanced Search" Scroll down the page and look for the Peer Reviewed option on the right-hand side. Select the box. Scroll down the page further to 'Methodology' and choose EMPIRICAL STUDY. Choose other limits, such as the publication date range, if needed. Go back to the top of the page and type your keywords and/or "key phrases" into the search boxes. Select Search
Search both PsychArticles and PsycINFO together	To search PsycArticles and PsycINFO together: Enter either PsycArticles or PsycINFO database. Go to "Choose Databases," which is the link above the search field. A dialog box of all EBSCOhost databases will pop up, and the database you are in should already be selected. Select the other database, either APA PsycINFO or PsycArticles; scroll down and select OK. In the Search Options section, scroll down to Scholarly (Peer Reviewed) Journals and select the box. Scroll down a little further until you find the Methodology box. Select EMPIRICAL study. Choose other limits, such as the publication date range, if needed. Go back to the top of the page and type your keywords and/or "key phrases" into the search boxes. Select Search.
GALILEO	GALILEO has no direct method to locate empirical research. Only using 'empirical' as a keyword will find some studies but may miss many others. Go to "Advanced Search" Type your keywords/key phrases into the search boxes. In the last field, include keywords or key phrases to help you find empirical research. Combine them with Boolean Operator OR. For example: "empirical study" OR "empirical research" OR "empirical evidence" OR "research methods" OR "research design" OR methodology. Scroll down the page, select scholarly/peer-reviewed journals and other limits like publication date. Select Search

Anatomy of a Research Article

Anatomy of an Article Presented by NCSU Libraries

ESOL Education: What is "scholarly literature"?